Important questions
Since when has this papyrus fragment been at the University of Graz?
The University of Graz has been in possession of the object since 1909. It was discovered during excavations at the Egyptian necropolis of Hibeh (today’s El Hiba) south of Fayum (El-Fayoum) and pertains to a collection of fragments of which a small portion was transferred to Graz.
How did the university come to own the object?
The city of Graz partially funded the excavations of the researchers Bernard Pyne Grenfell and Arthur Surridge Hunt, who were primarily interested in antique papyri. In exchange for the financial support, 52 papyrus fragments were transferred to Graz.
How was the papyrus used?
Grenfell und Hunt identified the fragment as a Greek language tax account of beer and oil and it was later reused as part of a mummy cartonnage (mummy wrapping).
What is interesting about the piece?
The significance of the object is that it is a fragment of a bifolio in a codex-like form, rather than a scroll. This is apparent in the way the sheet was folded before it was written on. The document was then further folded and sealed using a technique that was unknown until now, with a loop of thread in each corner, of which holes and thread remnants survive. As a bifolio, the Graz Mummy Book is the first physical evidence of the early development of the codex format, challenging the general belief that the codex format only emerged with the rise of Christianity.
How do we know that the fragment has a codex format?
The central fold and the layout of the text indicate that the document was designed as a bifolio from inception.
The text is written within clearly defined margins with continuous text on both sides of the bifolio.
The pair of pricked holes near the central fold suggests the possibility of multiple leaves having been held together in what appears to be a precursor to the bound book.
There is ink transfer from left to right and vice versa that suggests that the bifolio could have been closed along a pre-existing fold when the ink was still fresh.
What technique was used for binding the book?
It is not confirmed whether the Graz Mummy Book was sewn in a way comparable to a modern book. However, there is evidence that allows for such a possibility: this is the pair of holes in the inner margin that is referred to as “X” and “Y”. Two theories exist to explain the presence and position of these holes: A) The bifolio was spiked onto a needle or hook for temporary storage (similar to the spikes used for storing bills on the bars at modern restaurants). B) The holes come from a form of stab sewing, in which a pile of documents was fastened together by piercing thread tackets through the margin (similar to a modern ring binder). Some of the earliest surviving codices preserve evidence for such stab-sewn structures.
Why is this a sensational find?
Up until now, it was generally believed that the codex format emerged with the rise of Christianity. The earliest known codices are dated to 50-250 CE. Some examples are De Bellis Macedonicis and Demostenes, De falsa legatione. Predating the existing examples by 300-400 years, the Graz Mummy Book is the first physical evidence showing that the development of the codex format already began in the pre-Christian era.
How was this discovery made? Why was the object examined now?
During routine work on the papyrus fragments at the Special Collections of the University of Graz Library in May 2023, book conservator Dr Theresa Zammit Lupi came across previously unnoticed material evidence that one of the fragments, UBG Ms I 1946, is a bifolio and hence a precursor to the codex.
What are the consequences of this discovery for the way we understand history?
Until now, the earliest known codices were dated to 50-250 CE. The Graz Mummy Book, dated to 260 BCE, suggests that the codex format was already developed significantly earlier. More research in this area will now be conducted.
What further research is planned?
On 12-13 February 2024, an expert meeting was held on the topic of the Graz Mummy Book. The participants, who are experts in the fields of ancient history, book history and conservation, papyrology and papyrus conservation, and analytical chemistry, examined the papyrus fragment using a digital microscope. Discussions on the various possibilities of interpreting the fragment resulted in general agreement that the fragment is significant for early book history. The results of the meeting were published in Textual Cultures (Vol. 18 No. 1) in 2025.
In August 2024, the fragment was investigated at the Centre for the Study of Manuscript Cultures, University of Hamburg using state-of-the-art non-invasive technologies for material analyses. Amongst other things, X-ray fluorescence and multispectral analyses were applied to the investigation of inks and pigments while holes, thread fragments and fibres were analysed under a 3D microscope. The results of these examinations were discussed with the Graz team in June 2025 and are currently being prepared for publication.
What is the text on the fragment?
According to Grenfell und Hunt, the Greek text on the recto can be identified as a list of tax accounts for beer and oil. No text is evident on the verso.
How was the object dated to 260 BC?
The dating of the fragment was based on the context of the mummy during its excavation, palaeography, and iconography of the mummy. The material, colours and style used on the mummy´s decoration and the writing style match the early part of the Ptolemaic period (305-30 BCE).